ࡱ > > @ = d3 bjbjWW .8 5 5 . . . . . $ x ! . . : o o o . . o o o o . ]{qW o P 0 o B o o p Z c @ o 4 ^ ( : + !"#/ " "# + 2 0 1 6 3. ( <09- 45:01@L) /. !/ /. 1 . 5 5 1 . 4 6 , E 5 4 . E n c y c l o p e d i a o f G e o s c i e n c e s / E d . b y J a . H a r f f , M . M e s h e d e , S . P e t e r s e n , J . T h i e d e . - S p r i n g e r , 2 0 1 6 . - 9 6 1 p . 2 . , 1 8 . 0940:>2 . . -:A?5@8<5=B0;L=>5 8AA;54>20=85 2708<>459AB28O 25B@>2>3> ?>B>:0 8 ?>25@E=>AB=KE 2>;= =0 :>@>B:8E @073>=0E: 2B>@5D. =0 A>8A:. CG. AB5?. :0=4. D878:>- <0B5<0B. =0C:. - . >23>@>4, 2 0 1 6 . - 1 9 A. ( =- B ?@8:;04=>9 D878:8) . 3 . 5 5 1 . 4 6 , 6 2 . >4=K9 10;0=A 8 :>;510=8O C@>2=O 0A?89A:>3> <>@O. >45;8@>20=85 8 ?@>3=>7: 0CG=>- <5B>48G5A:>5 ?>A>185. - . , 2 0 1 6 . - 3 7 8 A. 4 . , 1 2 . 02@8;>2 . . 57><0AHB01=>5 <>45;8@>20=85 A@54=5H8@>B=KE 0B<>AD5@=KE O2;5=89 =04 >:50=><: 2B>@5D. 48AA. =0 A>8A: CG. AB5?. :0=4. D878:>- <0B5<0B. =0C:. - . , 2 0 1 6 . - 2 5 A. ( ) 5 . 5 5 1 . 4 7 , 3 6 . 5>;>38O <>@59 8 >:50=>2: 0B5@80;K %%I 564. =0CG. :>=D. ( (:>;K) ?> <>@A:>9 35>;>388 ( >A:20, 1 6 - 2 0 =>O1@O 2 0 1 5 3. ) 5 - B8 B. - . : !, 2 0 1 5 . 6 . 5 5 1 . 4 6 , 9 1 . C18= . . 564C !F8;;>9 8 %0@814>9 : >G5@:8 8AB>@88 B;0=B8G5A:>3> >B45;5=8O =AB8BCB0 >:50=>;>388 8<. . . (8@H>20 . - 0;8=8=3@04, 2 0 1 6 . - 2 7 0 A. : 8;. 7 . 5 5 1 . 4 7 , 6 0 . <5;LO=>2 . . >==K5 >A04:8 0;B89A:>3> <>@O: 0@BK 4>==KE >A04:>2. - 0;8=8=3@04, 2 0 1 6 . - 1 6 A. 8 . 5 5 1 . 4 6 , 8 0 . >@A:85 15@530 M2>;NF8O, M:>;>38O, M:>=><8:0: 0B- ;K %%V 564. 15@53>2>9 :>=D. , ?>A2. 6 0 - ;5B8N A> 4=O >A=>20=8O 01>G59 3@C??K >@A:85 15@530 ( "C0?A5, 1 - 6 >:B. 2 0 1 2 3. ) : 2 - E B. - @0A=>40@, 2 0 1 2 . 9 . , ! 2 8 . !040520 . !. !57>==K5 8 <=>3>;5B=85 :>;510=8O C@>2=O E>BA:>3> <>@O 8 ?@8;530NI8E 0:20B>@89: 2B>@5D. 48AA. =0 A>8A:. CG. AB5?. :0=4. 35>3@. =0C:. - .6=>- !0E0;8=A:, 2 0 1 6 . - 1 8 A. 1 0 . , " 4 0 . "8;8=8=0 . . &8:;>=8G5A:0O 0:B82=>ABL A525@=>3> ?>;CH0@8O 8 5Q @>;L 2 D>@<8@>20=88 @568<>2 2708<>459AB28O >:50=0 8 0B<>AD5@K: 2B>@5D. 48AA. =0 A>8A:. CG. AB5?. :0=4. D878:>- <0B5<0B. =0C:. - . . 2 0 1 6 . - 2 4 A. - ( . =- B >:50=>;>388 8<. . . (8@H>20) 1 1 . , " 4 5 . "8BG5=:> .. . 803=>AB8:0 ?>25@E=>AB=>3> 2>;=5=8O A 8A?>;L7>20=85< C;LB@072C:>2KE 8 <8:@>2>;=>2KE ;>:0B>@>2 A 4803@0<<0<8 =0?@02;5==>AB8 A?5F80;L=>9 AD5@K: 2B>@5D. 48AA. =0 A>8A:. CG. AB5?. :0=4. D878:>- <0B5<0B. =0C:. - . >23>@>4, 2 0 1 6 - 2 3 A 1 2 . , $ 2 4 . $0@460<8 %>AA59=. A>15==>AB8 ?>;O 25B@>2KE 2>;= 2 =489A:>< >:50=5 ?> 40==K< A?CB=8:>2KE 0;LB8<5B@8G5A:8E 87<5@5=89: 2B>@5D. 48AA. =0 A>8A:. CG. AB5?. CG. AB5?. :0=4. D878:>- <0B5<0B. =0C:. - !?1, 2 0 1 6 . - 2 3 A. 1 3 . , ' 2 3 . 'C@8= . . 57><0AHB01=0O 48=0<8:0 2>4 2 =B0@:B8G5A:>9 G0AB8 B;0=B8:8 8 5Q 2;8O=85 =0 @0A?@545;5=85 :@8;O: 2B>@5D. 48AA. =0 A>8A:. C L N l n p 0 2 8 x z d f X " h" " " ,$ @$ B$ N$ $ @% ݾ}u hx mH sH hT mH sH hx hT mH sH hT UhK h,=E h